VII. SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS
64. To work towards harmonizing the needs of stakeholders,
institutional capabilities and space systems it is first
of all important to identify the potential linkages and
the common threads wherein all three players could collectively
be engaged. Among the various space applications, the endeavours
of developing countries on risk assessment, early warning
and emergency communication provide a common ground. For
the benefit of countries with constrained institutional
environments, especially LDCs, it is necessary to take up
the initiatives discussed below.
A. Entry point activities
65. Entry point activities (EPAs), in the present context,
envisage integrating the operationally demonstrated potential
of space applications in areas that could attract the higher
priority by user communities, and also trigger wide-ranging
related the activities. Considering this, the first EPAs
could involve promoting the role of Earth observation inputs
in hazard zonation and risk assessment.
1. Hazard zonation
and risk assessment
66. Satellite imagery has important applications in mapping,
including risk assessment. While 95 per cent of the world’s
land mass is mapped on the scale 1:250,000, only 33 per
cent is mapped at 1:25,000. Less than 20 per cent of Asia
and the Pacific are mapped at a higher scale. In the case
of LDCs, the figures are far lower. In many cases, the maps
available are outdated or incomplete. The development of
risk assessment, driven by mapping activities, is hampered
primarily by the lack of adequate data, followed by inadequate
institutional and technical capacity or resources, and little
policy support in developing countries.
67. Although there could be debates on the scale of mapping,
format, standards and information content related to social,
economic and ecological or climatic vulnerability, risk
assessment ranks first in terms of users’ priorities. The
use of remote sensing and GIS has also demonstrated their
operational reliability in generating risk assessment scenarios
to a certain level. At the micro-level, risk assessment
for floods, earthquakes and landslides, some of the specific
requirements – such as the digital elevation model (DEM)
with close contour intervals, good SAR interferometric pairs,
high-resolution imaging and the like – demand strong institutional
or industry support. For drought, even the coarser levels
of hazard zonation and risk assessment can serve the purpose
to some extent.
68. In the simplest terms, hazard zonation and risk assessment
are derivatives of other maps, such as land-cover, geological,
climate and poverty maps. Land-cover maps indicate ecological
vulnerability; geological maps geophysical vulnerability;
climate maps climatic vulnerability; and poverty maps socio-economic
vulnerability. Aggregating all these fields makes hazard
zonation and risk assessment more accurate (figure VI).
Figure VI. An approach to hazard
zonation and risk assessment
69. The “best practices” in the region relating
to hazard zonation and risk assessment have demonstrated
the operational viability of this approach. For example,
multi-date satellite data capturing the flood inundations
during the various flood waves could be integrated with
land cover, geological, climate and poverty data (based
on household census and survey data) and produce risk assessments.
Based on the frequency of flooding, it is possible to identify
those villages and vulnerable persons who live with maximum
risks (figure VII). They could be targeted for various interventions
such as insurance coverage, regulations and other policies.
Figure VII. Micro-zonation for risk
assessment: Lakhimpur District, Brahmaputra Basin, India
With the above backdrop, ESCAP may consider working on
the following steps:
- Development of national-level risk information capabilities:
Creating awareness, imparting training and education,
facilitating information/knowledge sharing between members
and associate members to encourage hazard zonation and
risk assessment activities in the region. RESAP training
and educational networks could be used for specialized
activities.
- Taking up regional/subregional risk assessment projects
in selected pockets of LDCs: Like the “Asiacover”
project, a joint initiative of FAO and ESCAP, efforts
could be made to launch regional and subregional risk
assessment pilot projects covering the areas most vulnerable
to floods and drought. Projects could be dovetailed with
other contemporary missions, including Asia Cover.
- Diversifying the scope of mapping: In recent years,
poverty mapping has attracted considerable focus. The
poor in flood plains and semi-arid regions are identified
as being increasingly at risk vulnerable. It is important
to encourage the diversification of mapping activities
to avoid duplication as well as to promote the multi-purpose
uses of such maps.
- Issuing a compendium: A compendium summarizing the
“best practices” on risk assessment, highlighting
operational methodologies, institutional factors and enabling
applications, would be of considerable importance.
2. Strengthening
early warning systems
70. Taking into account the operational role that Earth
observation and satcom could play in strengthening the existing
early warning systems pertaining to floods and drought,
the following steps may be taken:
- Improving hazard warning capabilities: While there
are concerted efforts in developing countries to strengthen
their existing capabilities, there is still a gap in understanding
the scope of space applications in such endeavours. A
simple review of existing capabilities reveals that most
of the early warning systems for drought and floods are
based on hydrometeorological parameters. There is a need
to review critically the early warning systems vis-à-vis
the scope for space applications to strengthen these within
the existing institutional environments of developing
countries. Learning from the best practices is necessary
in this regard.
- Risk assessment to strengthen early warning: Risk assessment
maps provide the essential ingredients for locating the
warning systems and targeting the vulnerability levels
for disseminating warning messages.
- Capacity-building at local levels: Although the early
warning systems developed by international organizations,
regional agencies and national governments have shown
their operational reliability over the years, their weakness
lie in local-level mechanisms in terms of (a) interpreting
generic information into the contextual information, and
(b) taking timely decisions to reduce the losses. For
example, forecasters need expertise to contextualize El
Niño-based seasonal drought forecast and forecasting
of water-level rise in river basins. Space applications
address such gaps. ESCAP, WMO and regional agencies may
develop suitable enabling mechanisms to benefit developing
countries.
3. Access to earth
observation data and services
71. Access to Earth observation data and services is without
a doubt the real entry point activity. High-resolution data
are a necessity for detailed risk assessment. The emergence
of “global transparency”, resulting from high-resolution
commercial remote sensing satellites, promises benefits
as well as costs. The challenge is to devise policies that
harness the benefits of growing international transparency.
- At the fringes of commercialization, there is a room
for negotiating humanitarian causes: In the case of satcom
applications, Intelsat, Ericsson and other commercial
operators have demonstrated their support through United
Nations agencies and enabled emergency communication networks
in several vulnerable pockets. A similar framework may
be useful in providing high-resolution imagery to LDCs,
possibly for pilot demonstrations of risk assessment.
- Replicating the Tampere Declaration: The Tampere Convention
triggered wide-ranging satcom applications for disaster
management, so a similar convention may help to expand
the scope of Earth observation. A suitable framework is
necessary to organize such a convention.
- Forum of Earth observation agencies for disaster management:
In the existing data distribution policies of space agencies,
both in the public and private sectors, there is scope
for cost-effective Earth observation data access, especially
for disaster management. If a forum of Earth observation
agencies for disaster management is created, in the framework
of cooperation and information sharing, it will help LDCs
gain cost-effective access to observation data.
- Mobilizing the support of space agencies: Some of the
space agencies, such as NOAA, have (a) rare archives of
historical Earth Observation data pertaining to typical
floods and drought, (b) the latest Earth observation data,
information and scientific knowledge relevant to the developing
countries in the region, and (c) a web site with valuable
resources. The support from such agencies, especially
in terms of capacity-building in developing countries
to enable them to benefit from such resources, will help
strengthen national capabilities in the region. For example,
<www.reliefweb.int> provides valuable Earth observation
inputs on natural disasters for relief operations. For
the local user community, particularly in LDCs to act
on such information, it is necessary to have enhanced
capabilities.
- Harnessing the benefits of Disaster Monitoring Constellation
(DMC): The DMC is gaining ground in terms of providing
near-real-time Earth observation access to the user community
worldwide. The support of the participating agencies involved
in DMC will promote Earth observation applications for
emergency management. o Cultivating International Charter
support to help LDCs: Although the “International
Charter on Space and Major Disasters”, a partnership
effort among space-faring nations, provides users the
opportunity to have free access to satellite data and
services, the benefits of the Charter have been limited
in Asia and the Pacific region. Of around 40 activations
of the Charter since 11 November 2000, support has been
extended to only about eight or nine disasters from the
region.
At the ESCAP level, efforts are important to maximize the
benefits from the Charter. Efforts could include the following:
(a) expanding the scope of the Charter to include hazard
and risk assessment early warning and emergency communication
(as the present focus of the Charter is primarily disaster
impact assessment, it is desirable to accommodate disaster-mitigation-related
services as well), (b) extending special privileges, in
terms of capacity-building and other support, to LDCs, considering
their higher degree of vulnerability and weaker institutional
base, and (c) negotiating the role of ESCAP in helping LDCs
with the overall Charter mechanisms.
4. Recasting community
teleservice centres: prototype demonstrations
72. Community teleservice centres (CTCs) have served the
purpose of reaching out, addressing the digital divides
and empowering the community. Recasting CTCs, in the framework
of community-based disaster management systems by addressing
the hierarchical information needs of stakeholders, calls
for multitasking of existing and planned satcom/terrestrial
networks. The concept of an enhanced, deployable, disaster-response
CTC with mobile communication is shown in figure VIII. Essential
services, such as connectivity (telephone, fax, e-mail,
video, data), dissemination of warning messages, vulnerability
status, community empowerment through social safety nets,
tele-medicine support, public education and training, could
be organized in the multitasking mode. In fact, recasting
of CTCs would address several gaps in the system, such as
sending out early warning messages and other related services
down the line.
- Prototype “proof of the concept” pilot project:
Considering that such initiatives can create wide-ranging
impacts, it is necessary to conduct a pilot project based
on multitasking the satcom/terrestrial networks. Initially,
multitasking of mobile WLL-based VSATs could be considered.
- Multitasking of broadband satellite networks: The advent
of broadband satellites in Ku and Ka regions holds improved
potential for wide-ranging mainstream applications. Multitasking
on larger bandwidths is easier than on narrow bands and
may provide better emergency services. Proof of the concept
in this regard will have far-reaching implications.
- Compendium on multitasking of satcom networks for disaster
management: A compendium may serve as a valuable document
for the members and associate members to develop awareness
about best practices and encourage them to develop political
support.
Figure VIII. Multitasking of an
emergency communication network to facilitate community-based
a disaster management system
B. Setting up regional
and subregional cooperative networks for floods and drought
73. Recurrent floods and drought are common to several
countries in different parts of Asia and the Pacific. The
same river, for instance, may cause floods in more than
one country. The real strategy for flood management, therefore,
lies in taking into account the totality of the river basin,
passing through different countries. Use of remote sensing
and GIS enables the characterization of the entire river
basin, with all the relevant spatial attributes. Similarly,
a spatial perspective of agro-ecological settings that cut
across several national boundaries is required for drought
management. Establishing a regional cooperative mechanism
to use space applications for managing floods and drought
is a manageable undertaking, and the following steps are
envisaged in this direction.
- Framework of cooperative mechanisms: A “virtual” network
could be made up, involving (a) international (i.e. United
Nations) agencies and regional organizations such as ADPC
and ADRC, (b) space agencies, including private space-based
ICT service providers such as Inmarsat, Shin Satellite,
Asia Satellite, and APT Satellite and (c) nodal disaster
management agencies, including civil defence authorities
(figure IX). The network could focus on exchanging knowledge
and experience, sharing the wisdom and perspectives of
managing floods and drought, particularly in the common
river basins and agro-ecological zones, integrating global
knowledge and technological know-how into the local context.
The network, while dovetailing with national initiatives,
should aim synergize the efforts of other regional or
international agencies. While the network would help in
integrating space applications for floods and drought,
it would also aim to bring synergy among the related ongoing
and planned initiatives at various levels.
Figure IX. A conceptual framework
for setting up regional and subregional networks for flood
and drought
- Synergy: The network provides the opportunity to bring
in synergy among the various initiatives taken up by United
Nations agencies, other intergovernmental and regional
organizations, as listed in annex VI.
- Bringing disaster management and space agencies closer:
The “virtual” network aims to provide an institutional
interface between conventional disaster management authorities
and space agencies at international, regional, subregional
and national levels. In recognizing the cross-sectoral
linkages of disaster management, the focus of the work
is to integrate space applications appropriately.
- Strategy: Implementing the framework is a challenging
task, involving multiple agencies. However, bringing them
under the umbrella of a “virtual” network
involves (a) having dialogues with all the agencies, (b)
working out a set of common denominator programmes and
an agenda for the partnership, (c) creating a framework
for synergy among organizational activities and (d) placing
more focus on knowledge or expertise sharing than on financial
commitments. The International Charter provides insights
on organizing such partnership efforts.
- A “road map”: Regional seminars organized
by ESCAP at Beijing in 2001 and jointly with OOSA at Bangkok
in 2002, focused attention on the importance of regional
network (United Nations, 2003). A broad framework was
also spelled out. Specialized seminars and group training
sessions in Singapore and Hyderabad in 2004 on floods
and agricultural drought are likely to place more focus
on the overall concepts of the specialized regional or
subregional networks. A detailed technical document on
the framework is desirable. Subsequent steps may include
(a) expert consultation and dialogue with relevant players
to configure the networks and (b) consultations with members
and associate members.
- Specialized subregional network for floods: Flood management
is information intensive, so sharing the information and
data holds considerable significance. In the framework
of a regional or subregional network, a separate sub-network
for floods could be envisaged.
- Specialized subregional network for drought: Managing
drought involves intensive knowledge of agricultural systems,
the ecology of arid and semi-arid regions, soil and water
conservation, cropping patterns and much more. Sharing
of knowledge through sub-networks will go a long way towards
reducing impacts. The FAO initiative on sharing knowledge
for drought management in central, eastern and southern
Asia is a good example. An ARTEMIS type of network, however,
may not work in the region. In the dryland tropics of
Asia and the Pacific, there are irrigation systems, diverse
cropping patterns and a different kind of indigenous coping
mechanisms. Sharing knowledge through such frameworks
seems a workable option.
- Integration of RESAP training and education networks:
Efforts could be made to integrate RESAP training and
education networks to strengthen the proposed “virtual”
network for floods and drought.
C. Concept promotion
1. Convergence
of poverty alleviation and disaster management: a perspective
74. With the new paradigm in the overall disaster management
approach, that is from relief and response to vulnerability
analysis to risk management, the focus is placed on the
nature of people’s vulnerability and the influence of poverty.
In recent years, poverty alleviation and disaster reduction
strategies have moved towards establishing stronger links
with sectoral development.
75. At present, livelihood frameworks that recognize people’s
vulnerability context, community-based disaster management,
and risk transfer and financial mechanisms are some of the
approaches recognized worldwide. Such approaches are being
pursued by several agencies towards integrating poverty
alleviation and disaster reduction strategies (ADPC, 2002).
The use of space applications, particularly high-resolution
remote sensing and GIS, for risk assessment at the community
level, and connecting micro-level risk to the vulnerability
of ecosystems helps enable the policy and institutional
mechanisms to implement such approaches. It is therefore
necessary to promote such concepts vis-à-vis the role of
high-resolution remote sensing data therein.
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